Problems of partition of Pakistan

Problems of Partition of Pakistan

Pakistan was carved out in desperate urgency. It came into existence with horrible loss of life and property. But it seemed in those early years (1947-58) that the immense sacrifices might have been in vain for Pakistan had been struggling from one major crisis to another, fighting to ward off the multiple problems that threatened the nation.

Geographical Problems

In 1947, Pakistan finally gained its long-for independence, but it immediately faced very serious problems. Although Pakistan was created to unite the Muslim population of the old British India, it did not have natural borders, such as rivers, mountains or the sea. The two separate parts of Pakistan (East Bengal and West Pakistan) were separated by about a thousand miles of land that belonged to India. The vast distance between them also meant that there were significant differences and outlook between the people of the two different regions. East Bengal and the Punjab, for example, were both largely Muslim areas, but they had little else in common.

Political Problems

Pakistan lacked the machinery, personnel, and equipment for a new government. Even its capital, Karachi, was a second choice--Lahore was rejected because it was too close to the Indian border. Moreover, the constituent members of the assembly had been mostly wealthy landowners who had little political experience. Consequently, Quaid-e-Azam needed capital for government machinery, buildings and stationery as well as a government and officials to run the country. However, the major leader of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinaah, who possessed the spirit needed to run the country from a scratch was himself suffering from tuberculosis.

Economic Problems

Partition and its accompanying confusion also brought severe economic challenges to the two newly created and antagonistic countries. The partition plan ignored the principles of complementarity. West Pakistan, for example, traditionally produced more wheat than it consumed and had supplied the deficit areas in India. Cotton grown in West Pakistan was used in mills in Bombay and other west Indian cities. Commodities such as coal and sugar were in short supply in Pakistan--they had traditionally come from areas now part of India. Pakistan was not a wealthy country and its major activity, agriculture, did not produce a sufficient surplus to create the wealth needed for industrialization. Furthermore, Pakistan faced logistic problems for its commercial transportation because of the four major ports in British India, it was awarded only Karachi. But the problem that proved most intractable was defining relations between the two wings of Pakistan, which had had little economic exchange before partition.

The Accession of the Princely states

The maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, unpopular among his subjects, was reluctant to decide on accession to either dominion. He first signed agreements with both Pakistan and India. Alarmed by reports of oppression of fellow Muslims in Kashmir, armed groups from the North-West Frontier Province entered the maharaja's territory. The ruler requested military assistance from India but had to sign documents acceding to India before that country would provide aid in October 1947.

On August 14 and 15, 1947, these three princely states had become technically independent. But when the Muslim ruler of Junagadh, with its predominantly Hindu population, joined Pakistan a month later, India annexed his territory. In September 1948 India used force of arms to annex Hyderabad, which had a mostly Hindu population. 

Division of financial and military assets

One of the major issues that involved in partitioning the Bengal was the division of financial and military assets.  It was agreed that the assets were to be divided in ratio of 17 of India to 5 of Pakistan. Furthermore, India agreed to pay 750million rupees of 4 billion rupees in the world bank. However, as soon as the first 200 million were paid, the war between the two countries broke out over the issue o Kashmir, so India reused to pay the leftover amount. But the strike of Gandhi compelled them to pay further 500 million rupees, though the rest of 50 million were never paid. Moreover, Pakistan needed 4000 military officers for 150,000 army men, whereas only 2500 were available so Jinnah was forced to appoint 500 British officers. In cases of the division of military weapons, they often arrived late and were mostly outdated. In addition, India refused to handover any 1 of the 15 ordinance factories located in India, though it paid 60 million rupees to build an ordinance factory in Pakistan which was soon to be built at Wah.

The canal water dispute

The Indus Waters dispute had its origin in the Radcliffe Awards. The Radcliffe Award gave India the Ferozpur Headworks that controlled the Sutlej River as well as the Madopur Headworks controlling the River Ravi.  However, just one year later India turned back from its promises and blocked the two rivers that flowed through these head-works on the grounds that since it was located in their territory, they had every right to block the canals. However, Pakistan claimed that as Pakistan was an agro-based country, so its economy mainly depended on agriculture, therefore it had every right upon it.  Consequently, a temporary agreement was reached, India agreed to flow the water if Pakistan tried to India alternative water supplies.

Refugees and the accommodation crisis

In the years immediately before partition, there was widespread violence between the Muslim and non-Muslim communities across India. When the boundary of the two nations was demarcated and announced in August 1947, things became even worse. Millions of people found themselves living in the ‘wrong’ country and became victims of communal attacks. The only answered was for Muslims to move into Pakistan and non-Muslims to move into India. So began one of the largest migrations ever witnessed in the history of making and also some of eh worst scenes of communal violence. Hence Pakistan had to deal with a massive refugee problem. Nearly 5.9 million Muslims arrived in Pakistan shelterless and penniless. Not surprisingly, they were very difficult to accodomate by a country that was already going through economic distress.

CONCLUSION

Pakistan came into being as a free Muslim state in quite unfavourable circumstances .It had no resources ,it had no resources,it had to build up its administrative machinery from a scratch.But Supreme efforts were made by the Quiad-e-Azam and his colligues to grapple with the situation .His golden principles “Unity ” “Faith” and “Discipline” gave way to Pakistan for a bright future of a strong and well developed country .In his last message to the nation on 14th August 1948,he told the nation:

“The foundation of your state have been laid and it is now for you to build and build as quickly and as you can.”

Ayub Khan Reforms 1958 to 1969

Ayub Khan’s Reforms from 1958 to 1969

Constitutional Reforms

In Oct. 1959, the president Ayub Khan issued the Basic Democracies Order. It was a four- tier structure, in which people were involved in different levels of decision making. The four-tier structure would consist of a Village Council at the most basic level, a Sub-district council, a District Council and a Divisional Council. The local district magistrates and the divisional commissioners would act as chairmen of local bodies. Under this system 40,000 basic democrats were to be elected by the local bodies. It also consisted of an electoral college for the election of President and members of provincial and national assemblies. On the basis of this system, 1962 constitution was imposed. It enforced a presidential form of a govt., who was authorized to appoint governors of the provinces, who in turn would appoint the ministers of the cabinet. He was also given the power to veto the laws passed. Urdu and Bengali were recognized as the national language, and the principal of parity was implemented i.e. equal representation between EP and WP.  No doubt, they were aimed at greater participation of the local people for decision making but these reforms invited lots of criticism since they concentrated lots of power in the hands of the president. Moreover East Pakistanis too demanded greater share in the seats on the behalf of their greater population.

Industrial Reforms

Ayub’s advisors pressed for greater industrial development. For this purpose, he took support of foreign aid, especially that of UK, Germany and USA. Policies such as tax holiday, tax free dividened income upto Rs.3000 and large scale import of technology, setting up National Investment Trust(NIT) to use private savings for industrial development, as well as prize bond schemes, and defense saving certificates  were mainly introduced to encourage private industrial sector.  Moreover, a national Union, RCD was made to encourage trade. Setting up of Oil refinery on Karachi and PMDC (Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation) to explore minerals greatly boosted the economy. Production did rise rapidly and economy improved significantly which grew by 7% in 1960’s. However, it enabled the wealth to be concentrated in few hands. It was revealed that only 22 families controlled  66% of industrial assets as well as the banks and insurance companies. And, the fact that most of them were from West Pakistan was enough to ignite the spark of anger in East Pakistan. It also made the country increasingly dependent on foreign aid.

Agricultural Reforms

Ayub Khan also introduced reforms in the field of Agricultural to increase its productivity. No-one could own land holdings less than 12.5 acres or greater than 500 acres(irrigated) or 1000 acres (unirrigated). The land in excess was confiscated by the govt. and redistributed among the landless farmers. Landowners were forced to find tenets, hence the small farms were run more efficiently than large farms. Use of HYVs, use of fertilizers produced by  fertilizer industries that were recently developed, encouragement of mechanization by the way of availability of tractors and harvesters  on easy installments , installation of tube wells, better irrigational facilities due to the 3 dams built as a result of the Indus Water treaty in1960 with India which ensured constant water supply for 10 years, ensure increased crop yields. These policies brought about a green revolution and so crop yields were at an all time record. However, it lead to large scale unemployment and these facilities could not be used by poor peasants who found them too expensive. So they made rich richer and poor poorer.

Social and Educational reforms

Ayub embarked on an ambitious plan of social uplift of the country. Making primary education free and education upto 8^th class compulsory, as well as setting up of schools, colleges, technical and vocational institutes in both wings of Pakistan helped to increase the literacy rate to some extent. Moreover, vigorous family planning programmes financed  by American loans by the use of radios, cinemas, newspapers, posters and leaflets created awareness among the people regarding birth control. The policies such as prohibition of polygamy, making the registration of marriage by the govt., the acceptation of divorce by law only if the person goes through a long procedure involving the union council, were all aimed to raise the status of women.  Moreover, equal rights of inheritance were given to those grandchildren whose father/mother was not alive. However, all these efforts were in vain as they were unable to touch the surface as they were not enforced with an iron will, nor a check was kept on the workings of the reforms. Family planning programmes too were not received with expected enthusiasm as they were opposed on religious as well as traditional grounds.

Q.           Why did Ayub Khan fall from power?                                                                                                  

Ans.       Class difference created by Ayub Khan’s economic policies eventually led to his downfall. The creation of new wealth was concentrated in few hands. It was revealed that only 22 families controlled 66% of the industrial assets as well as 80% of the banking and insurance companies.  Unsurprisingly, the fact that most of these families were located in WP angered EP. So a small group of wealthy elite class had almost complete control of Pakistan’s wealth. Such economic drawbacks resulted in Ayub’s resignation.

Secondly, the celebration of Decade of development also served as an important reason for Ayub’s downfall. It provided opportunity for various disgruntled elements to rise against Ayub. Widespread protest and riots led to major political crisis for Ayub, not only students protest erupted in WP in Oct 1968, but also his visit to Peshawar was marred with assassination. This agitation in both the wings paved the way for his resignation.

Thirdly, opposition by political parties and resignation of Basic democrats led to his downfall. In Jan 1969, eight opposition parties united to form Democratic Action Committee, who demanded proper election, lifting up of emergency powers and greater provincial autonomy for EP. Though, Ayub did made attempts of negotiation and pacifying them, but he had done too little, too late. Soon, large number of Basic democrats resigned and so it was impossible to replace them. Finally, on 25 March 1969, he resigned. 

Battle of Hunain

Battle of Hunain

After the conquest of Mecca, the Muslims stayed in the city for two weeks when the news soon broke out that a big army had been mobilized in the valley of Hunain to attack Mecca and to undo the victory of the Muslims. The leading tribes among them were the Thaqeef, Hawazin, Banu Sa'ad and Banu Jashm, all fierce warriors, jealous of their independence and proud of their warlike traditions. This time Prophet (PBUH) assembled a force of 12,000 warriors, which included 2000 non-Muslim Meccans. This new army was the largest force ever assembled in Arabia to that date. As its various formations marched out of the city gate, in full panoply of war, Abu Bakr who was watching, was much impressed, and exclaimed: “We cannot be defeated this time because of lack of numbers.”

In order to reach the fertile valley of Taif, they had to pass through a narrow defile, called Hunain. When the first column constituting the Muslim vanguard, commanded by Khalid Bin Walid, entered the valley of Hunayn in the south-east of Makkah, the enemy was already lying in ambush, ready to greet it with his missile weapons. The pass was narrow, the road was very rough, and the Muslims were advancing apparently unaware of the enemy's presence. It was just before dawn when all of a sudden, the Hawazin launched their attack. Hawazin sharp-shooters, securely hidden; sent forth a murderous rain of arrows, causing havoc among the Muslims ranks, who took to a wild flight. Soon every man was running and it was not long before Prophet (PBUH) was left alone with a handful of his faithful followers around him. Among them were his relatives, and other prominent companions; they were Hazrat Ali, Abu Sufyan and his brother, Rubiya, Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masood, and Hazrat Abbas (the uncle of Prophet(PBUH))  and few others. The Prophet asked his uncle, Abbas, to call the fleeing Muslims. Abbas had a very powerful voice, and he shouted: “O ye Muhajireen and O ye Ansar! O ye victors of Badr and O ye men of the Tree of Fealty! Where are you going? The Messenger of God is here. Come back to him.”

The voice of Abbas boomed in the narrow valley and almost everyone heard it, and it proved effective in checking the flight of the Muslims.

The Ansar were the first to halt, and to return to the battle. Inspired by their example, others also rallied. Soon they were able to regroup. A fierce skirmish took place. At first, the issue appeared uncertain but then the Muslims began to press the enemy. Once they recovered their morale, they went on the offensive. The enemy still fought bravely but was hampered in his mobility by the vast number of women and children they had had brought with them, which was mainly the part of war strategy of their leader Malik Bin Auf. The Muslims pressed their advantage and then it was the Bedouins who were running in all directions.

This is called the battle of Hunain, in which the enemies lost seventy of their bravest. Six thousand captives including women and children, forty thousand sheeps and goats, four thousand ounces of silver and twenty four thousand camels formed the booty of Hunain. Holy Quran mentions this battle by name, while saying, ‘’ Assuredly Allah did help you in many battlefields and on the Day of Hunayn…. But Allah did pour His calm on the Messenger and on the Believers, and sent down forces which you saw not’’

Returning from Taif, Muhammad halted at Je'raanah, a place beyond the outskirts of Mecca, where the entire booty of Hunain had been collected for distribution. In the division of the spoils, a large proportion fell to the share of the newly converted Meccans than to the people of Medina. Some of the Medinite Ansars looked upon this as an act of partiality and thus, there were whispers of dissatisfaction. However Prophet(PBUH) assured them by saying, ‘’ O' men of Ansar, why you disturb your hearts because of the things of this life? Would you not prefer that the other people return to their homes with the goats and camels, while you go back to your homes with me in your midst?" On hearing his words, the Ansar wept and said that they wanted only Muhammad and nothing else.

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah

The man who piloted the ship of Muslim freedom movement and ultimately brought it to the shores of independence was not destined to live long after the realization of his age long dream. His contributions as a creator of Pakistan are numerous. His sagacious decisions during the struggle for independence are uncountable.

Building a Government

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah held the post of Governor General, who was be a figurehead acting as an inspiration to the nation. However, he also took the role of Chief Executive. He chaired cabinet meetings and was the president of constituent Assembly. Karachi was selected as the capital.  Under the leadership of Liaqat Ali Khan, a loyal lieutenant of Jinnah, was established the first Pakistan Cabinet. This newly formed cabinet aimed at the construction of administrative structure and rehabilitation of refugees. Moreover, the civil services were organized as well as Civil Service rules were also drafted to run the administration smoothly. He also induced the spirit of workmanship in his officials to work as the servants of people, not as their rulers, which was important as they had to begin with a scratch.

Building a Nation

Quaid-e-Azam soon realized that the morale of the public was at the lowest ebb. He therefore decided to rehabilitate and restore the confidence and morale of the people. He delivered inspiring speeches which filled people with enthusiasm. He stressed the need for unity, since Pakistan presented a diversified nation, he emphasized that neither should different people think of themselves as Punjabi, Sindhi or Pakhtuns nor should the non-Muslims should feel insecure in the new country, but they should work together to build a prosperous nation while burying their past and differences. He also called himself the Protector General and also set up a Relief fund to rehabilitate the refugees. His words revived the drooping spirits of the people.

Membership of UNO

Jinnah was a firm believer of peaceful existence and fully realized the importance of UN membership for Pakistan. It could help Pakistan establish friendly relations with other member states. Therefore Pakistan became the member of UNO on 30^th September 1948. He not only wanted the International States to recognize the new country, but also wanted to draw their attention to the issues that young state was facing, mainly towards the Kashmir issue, the unjust accession of Hyderabad and Junagadh, the division of military assets but also towards the Canal water dispute, on which the state depended for its survival.

Building an economy

 Since Pakistan was suffering from economic distress due to the unjust division of military assets as well as it had to accommodate millions of shelterless, penniless and dispirited refugees. Therefore, in order to counter these problems Quaid-e-Azam established Sate Bank of Pakistan 1^st July 1948, to help to develop the economy. In 1948 his industrial statement also laid emphasis on the industrial development for the young state. He also tried to reach a compromise on the Canal Water Dispute to ensure that Pakistan was not deprived of its precious water to drive it agro-based economy. He also persuaded India to handover the due share of Pakistan from the agreed financial assets.

Establishing National Security

Though, Pakistan was given poor military equipment and it lacked senior cadre officers for the army, the Quaid worked to ensure that the new country was able to defend itself. Pakistan needed 4,000 military officers to lead the 150,000 army men, however, only 2500 officers migrated to Pakistan. Therefore Quaid-e-Azam appointed 500 British officers to fill the space. Moreover, Pakistan army saw its first action in Kashmir. Despite being outnumbered and shabbily equipped, Quaid-e-Azam was not afraid to use it. 

Failures

Quaid-e-Azam was unable to resolve the Kashmir Crisis. Kashmir was a Muslim-majority princely state, however it was ruled by a Hindu maharaja. First, he was bent upon achieving independence, though when he saw that there was no third option; he had to join either Pakistan or India, he began to unleash a campaign to drive the Muslims out who later took refuge in Pakistan. Therefore, Pakistan sent troops to help the Kashmiris.  But soon, he turned to India for help, who only accepted the demand on the condition that he will join India. Therefore , a war was fought between the two countries, but neither side was too strong to continue, so the matter was referred to UNO. The only possible solution was to held a referendum, which would be held according to Nehru, ‘’once the situation normalized’’.  Hence, the referendum was never held, and it still remain a bitter episode in the diplomatic relations of Pakistan with India.

Secondly, Quaid-e-Azam was also unable to reach a permanent solution to the canal water dispute. Though, India temporarily agreed to let the water flow through the headworks of ferozpur and madhopur into Ruver Ravi and Chenab, but only if Pakistan looked forward to the development of alternative Water supplies. However, to this date, despite the signing if Indus Water Treaty in 1960, India, comes into clash with Pakistan over the issue of the flow of water through these headworks.

Thirdly, Quaid-e-Azam was unable to address the problem of accommodation of refugees to a full extent. Despite, the call of Congress and Muslim League for a peace migration, millions of people were swept in the huge tide of communal violence. Estimatedly, 20 million people were made shelterless.  Even till this day, people are suffering due to the atrocities they faced by the hands of Sikhs or Hindus. Even after his death, the mass migration continued, which marred long term effects on the economy of Pakistan as they had to be provided with food and shelter by an already burdened economy.

Fourthly, Quaid-e-Azam was suffering from tuberculosis. The freedom movement drained even the last ounce of the energy out of him. The Lord gave him slightly more than a year to look after the newly created state. Due to precautious health he could not dedicate all his time to build the fabric of infant state. Pakistan already lacked a leader of the capabilities needed to run a state that was plagued with numerous problems and issues. Jinnah was the last string of hope for the survival of the young state, but he too did not have enough time to put the infant state on the lines of stability and progress. 

Consequently, he left Pakistanis as orphan on 11^th  September 1948 in amidst of the internal disputes and political crisis.